Intimate partners, acquaintances, and individuals once trusted with personal information have emerged as the most frequently reported perpetrators of technology-facilitated gender-based violence (TFGBV) in Kenya, according to the Federation of Women Lawyers in Kenya (FIDA-Kenya).
From former lovers and colleagues to individuals first encountered on social media, these are people who know their victims well enough to exploit private details, images and digital footprints, turning familiarity into a powerful tool of harm.
Legal advocates say this pattern makes TFGBV particularly difficult to report and prosecute.
According to Brenda Yambo, Legal Counsel at Federation of Women Lawyers in Kenya (FIDA-Kenya), most cases handled by the organisation involve perpetrators who are known to the survivor.
“From the cases we receive, it is rarely a total stranger. It is usually someone familiar a former partner, someone you were dating, a colleague or someone you interacted with at some point,” Yambo explains.
“That familiarity gives perpetrators access to personal information, images and digital spaces that are later weaponised.”
TFGBV has become one of the fastest-rising forms of violence against women and girls, manifesting through non-consensual sharing of intimate images, cyberbullying, impersonation, online stalking, harassment and coordinated digital attacks.
Abuse has increasingly shifted to online spaces that were once viewed as tools for connection, empowerment and self-expression.
Yambo notes that while TFGBV is often framed as a new phenomenon, it has existed for years, only now amplified by digital platforms.
“In the past, rude comments or body-shaming were brushed off. Today, people are more informed about what constitutes online violence and understand that harm does not have to be physical to be real,” she says.
She adds that TFGBV causes deep psychological and emotional harm and can escalate into more severe forms of violence.
“Sometimes it starts online through social media or dating apps and later spills into offline spaces,” Yambo says, citing cases where online interactions led to stalking, doxing or sexual assault.
Despite Kenya having multiple laws that can be applied to TFGBV including the Computer Misuse and Cybercrimes Act 2018, the Sexual Offences Act 2019, the Data Protection Act 2019 and provisions within the Penal Code reporting remains a major hurdle.
Fear of stigma, public exposure, retaliation, and prolonged legal processes discourages many survivors from seeking justice.
“The reporting process itself can be traumatising,” Yambo says.
“Survivors may spend an entire day trying to obtain an OB number, only to be told the relevant officer is unavailable. For intimate partner cases, survivors often fear the consequences of reporting someone they once trusted.”
Lack of digital evidence further weakens many cases. In distress, survivors often delete abusive messages, images or videos, unaware that such material is critical for prosecution.
“Without concrete evidence, it becomes difficult to meet the threshold required for conviction,” Yambo explains, adding that public sensitisation on evidence preservation is urgently needed.
FIDA Kenya provides pro bono legal representation, psychosocial support and advocacy for survivors, while also engaging policymakers and women leaders to strengthen legal responses to emerging forms of violence.
“TFGBV is not a different kind of violence it is gender-based violence, only conducted online,” Yambo says.
As cases continue to rise, feminist organisations in Kenya are coming together to confront TFGBV through collective action, innovation and policy advocacy.
Under the Strengthening Inter-Generational Movements and Networks to Demand Accountability and Combat Technology-Facilitated Violence and Other New Forms of Violence Against Women and Girls in Sub-Saharan Africa initiative, feminist groups in Kenya and Nigeria are building cross-generational alliances to address emerging forms of violence targeting women and girls.
The initiative seeks to strengthen feminist movements by closing intergenerational gaps, increasing inclusivity and developing practical solutions that respond to how violence is evolving in the digital age.
At its core is the recognition that traditional approaches to gender-based violence must now expand to address harm occurring on social media platforms, messaging apps, dating apps and other online spaces.
One organisation at the forefront of this work is SafeOnline Women Kenya. According to digital rights lawyer Irene Mwende, TFGBV remains significantly under-reported despite its widespread impact.
“Many survivors do not know where or how to report digital abuse. Others fear stigma, retaliation or simply believe nothing will be done,” she says.
To respond to these challenges, SafeOnline Women Kenya has developed the Safe Her Mobile App, a survivor-centred digital safety tool designed for young women and girls.
The app, currently in its pilot phase, provides an accessible platform for reporting TFGBV incidents and accessing digital safety resources.
“The Safe Her App is designed for anyone with basic internet knowledge,” Mwende explains. “A survivor, or even someone reporting on behalf of another person, can document what happened in a simple and guided way.”
Through the app’s incident reporting dashboard, users can describe the type of harm experienced, such as doxing, cyberbullying, harassment or body shaming.
They can include detailed descriptions, paste links to abusive posts, select the platform where the abuse occurred including X (formerly Twitter), Instagram or dating apps and categorise the severity of the incident.
Users can also indicate their age group, helping organisations understand which demographics are most affected by TFGBV.
Crucially, the reporting feature allows for anonymous submissions. Survivors can choose whether or not to share their contact details, reducing fear while still enabling support.
Evidence such as screenshots, videos or documents can be uploaded, recognising that digital evidence is often essential in TFGBV cases.
Once a report is submitted, SafeOnline Women Kenya reviews it within 24 hours. Depending on the severity, a “guardian” either a legal expert or mental health professional may be assigned to support the survivor.
Survivors also receive updates on the progress of their case, including requests for additional information where necessary.
Beyond reporting, the app includes an education and empowerment component. It hosts a tech-security literacy curriculum covering TFGBV awareness, legal rights, data protection, cybersecurity and online safety.
Users learn practical skills such as preserving evidence, securing accounts and recognising unsafe websites.
Inclusivity is a core design principle. The app is being trained to recognise Kenyan English, Kiswahili and Sheng, ensuring survivors can report abuse using language that reflects their lived realities. “Digital safety tools must meet people where they are,” Mwende says.
Data protection is another central concern. The app follows a survivor-centred and privacy-by-design approach, ensuring that collected data is protected and used ethically.
Aggregated data will be used to advocate for stronger enforcement of digital safety laws and to build evidence on the scale of TFGBV in Kenya.
The scale of the problem is stark. A 2025 report by the Women Advocates Research and Documentation Centre (WARDC), UN Women and FIDA Kenya found that 99.3 per cent of women and girls in Kenya had experienced technology-facilitated violence.
Another UNFPA study focusing on higher learning institutions in Nairobi found that nearly nine in ten students had experienced or witnessed such abuse.
Young women, students, women without legal or economic power, and those outside Nairobi face heightened risk, particularly where abuse occurs in Kiswahili, Sheng or other local languages that often evade moderation systems.
Globally, emerging challenges are intensifying violence against women and girls online. According to the 2024 UN Women report on technology-facilitated violence, anti-rights actors are increasingly using digital platforms to attack women’s rights, creating hostile environments marked by harassment, cyberbullying and threats.
The rapid growth of artificial intelligence has further escalated risks through deepfake pornography, image-based abuse and targeted disinformation.
The report notes that technology is reinforcing misogynist norms, normalising violence against women and girls across online and offline spaces.
Women in public life, including journalists, human rights defenders, politicians and feminist activists, are disproportionately targeted.
